This guide is for disabled people, people with long-term health conditions, neurodivergent people, carers, parents, families and anyone who needs help challenging a decision, making a complaint or finding legal support.
It covers NHS services, councils, social care, DWP, benefits, Child Maintenance Service, SEND, housing, family court, tribunals, discrimination, ombudsmen and legal aid.
First: Is It a Complaint, Challenge or Appeal?
One of the most important things is using the correct process. A complaint and an appeal are not the same thing.
Complaint
Use a complaint where the problem is mainly about how a service was provided.
Examples:
- Unreasonable delay
- Lost paperwork
- Poor communication
- Staff behaviour
- Accessibility failures
- Repeated administrative mistakes
- Failure to follow a complaints procedure
Challenge / Reconsideration
Use a challenge where you believe an organisation has made the wrong formal decision.
Examples:
- Wrong benefit award
- Incorrect CMS calculation
- Refused benefit
- Wrong overpayment decision
- Incorrect entitlement decision
Appeal
An appeal asks an independent tribunal or higher court to consider whether a decision should be changed.
Appeal rights and deadlines depend on the type of decision.
Independent Advocacy
An advocate can help someone understand their rights, communicate their views and take part in meetings or complaints processes.
An advocate may be able to help with:
- Understanding letters and decisions
- Explaining options
- Writing or organising a complaint
- Preparing for meetings
- Attending meetings
- Helping someone explain what they want
- Keeping the complaint focused
- Helping communicate accessibility needs
- Supporting someone through health or social care processes
NHS Complaints Advocacy
Free NHS complaints advocacy is available. Your local Healthwatch can help identify the provider in your area.
Llais provides independent complaints advocacy for NHS services and qualifying social care complaints in Wales.
The Patient Advice and Support Service – PASS – provides free, confidential support with NHS complaints.
The Patient and Client Council provides independent advice, advocacy and support about Health and Social Care concerns.
Reasonable Adjustments When Complaining or Appealing
Disabled people may need changes to normal procedures so that they can communicate, understand information and participate fairly.
You can ask organisations to consider adjustments such as:
- Communication by email instead of telephone
- Extra time to read and respond to documents
- Large print
- Braille
- Easy Read
- Audio information
- British Sign Language support
- A supporter or advocate at meetings
- Video or remote meetings
- Accessible meeting rooms
- Rest breaks
- More time to process questions
- Questions provided in a clear or structured way
- Hearing enhancement equipment
- Communication aids
NHS Complaints — England
You have the right to complain about NHS treatment, care or services.
This can include:
- GP services
- Hospitals
- Mental health services
- Community healthcare
- Dentists providing NHS treatment
- Pharmacies
- Opticians providing NHS services
- Ambulance services
- NHS 111
- NHS-funded care
Try to Resolve Urgent Problems Early
If the problem is happening now, speaking to the service, ward manager or relevant staff may resolve it quickly.
PALS
Patient Advice and Liaison Service – PALS – is available in most hospitals. It can help resolve urgent concerns informally and explain the complaints process.
After the NHS Complaints Process
If you have completed the NHS complaints process and remain dissatisfied, you can ask the Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman to consider the complaint.
NHS Complaints — Wales
The new process is designed to include:
- Early listening and resolution
- Clearer communication
- Formal investigation where required
- Offers of advocacy and support
- Consideration of redress in qualifying cases
Independent Advocacy
Llais can provide free independent health and social care complaints advocacy.
Ombudsman
Unresolved NHS Wales complaints can be referred to the Public Services Ombudsman for Wales where appropriate.
NHS Complaints — Scotland
People receiving NHS care in Scotland have the right to provide feedback, raise concerns and make complaints.
Start With the NHS Service
You can normally raise the concern with the relevant service, practice or NHS board.
Patient Advice and Support Service
PASS provides free independent advice and practical support.
Scottish Public Services Ombudsman
The Scottish Public Services Ombudsman is the final complaints stage for most public services in Scotland, including NHS complaints after the organisation's complaints procedure has been completed.
Health & Social Care Complaints — Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland uses Health and Social Care – HSC – rather than the NHS structures used in Great Britain.
Stage 1: frontline response, normally aimed at early resolution.
Stage 2: full investigation where required.
Independent Support
The Patient and Client Council can provide free independent advocacy and assistance with HSC complaints.
Northern Ireland Public Services Ombudsman
If the HSC provider's complaints process does not resolve the problem, you may be able to complain to NIPSO.
Council & Social Care Complaints
Local-authority complaints can involve:
- Adult social care
- Children's services
- Care assessments
- Care packages
- Direct Payments
- Disabled Facilities Grants
- Home adaptations
- SEND or additional learning needs
- Housing services
- Blue Badge administration
- Safeguarding administration
- Failure to provide agreed services
Start With the Council
Normally, use the council's formal complaints procedure first.
Unresolved complaints about councils and many adult social care providers can be taken to the Local Government and Social Care Ombudsman.
The Public Services Ombudsman for Wales investigates qualifying complaints about Welsh councils and other public bodies.
The Scottish Public Services Ombudsman is the final complaints stage for most Scottish local public services.
NIPSO investigates qualifying complaints about local and central government and other public bodies in Northern Ireland.
DWP Complaints
You can complain about the service provided by the Department for Work and Pensions where, for example:
- Mistakes have been made
- There have been unreasonable delays
- You were treated poorly
- You were not kept informed
- Documents were lost
- Information was not properly recorded
- Accessibility needs were not addressed
- There were repeated administrative failures
Independent Case Examiner
Some unresolved DWP and Child Maintenance Service complaints can eventually be considered by the Independent Case Examiner after the relevant complaints process has been completed.
Ombudsman
Eligible unresolved complaints about DWP administration can ultimately reach the Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman through the required route.
Benefit Decisions, Mandatory Reconsideration & Appeals
Mandatory reconsideration may apply to decisions involving:
- Personal Independence Payment – PIP
- Universal Credit
- Employment and Support Allowance
- Attendance Allowance
- Disability Living Allowance
- Carer's Allowance
- Some overpayment decisions
- Child Maintenance decisions
What to Explain
Do not simply write: “I disagree.”
Explain:
- Which part of the decision is wrong
- Why it is wrong
- Which evidence supports your position
- Which evidence was overlooked or misunderstood
Tribunal Appeal
If you remain dissatisfied after mandatory reconsideration, you may be able to appeal to the Social Security and Child Support Tribunal.
The tribunal is independent of the department that made the decision.
Social Security Scotland Decisions
Benefits administered by Social Security Scotland use their own challenge process.
This includes benefits such as:
- Adult Disability Payment
- Child Disability Payment
- Pension Age Disability Payment
- Carer Support Payment
- Scottish Child Payment
- Other devolved Scottish benefits
Re-determination
For most relevant benefits, the first stage is a re-determination.
Appeal
If the issue remains unresolved after re-determination, an appeal may be made to the appropriate Scottish tribunal.
Benefit Appeals — Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland has a separate benefits appeal system.
Before appealing, you normally need to ask the office that made the decision to formally reconsider it.
This is called a Mandatory Reconsideration.
The Appeals Service
After receiving the Mandatory Reconsideration Notice, qualifying appeals are made to The Appeals Service.
Child Maintenance Service — Errors, Complaints & Appeals
There are two separate routes depending on the problem.
Wrong Decision or Calculation
Examples include:
- Incorrect income used
- Evidence missed
- Shared care recorded incorrectly
- Wrong effective date
- Incorrect variation decision
- Incorrect maintenance calculation
This usually requires a mandatory reconsideration.
Poor Service
Examples include:
- Unreasonable delay
- Lost documents
- Poor communication
- Repeated administrative errors
- Failure to update records
- Staff conduct
These are normally dealt with through the complaints process.
After Mandatory Reconsideration
If you remain dissatisfied and the decision carries a right of appeal, you can appeal to the Social Security and Child Support Tribunal.
Child Maintenance tribunal appeals in Great Britain use form SSCS2.
Welsh language: 0800 232 1979
Relay UK: 18001 then 0800 171 2345
SEND, Education & EHC Plan Challenges
Parents and young people can appeal certain local-authority decisions about Education, Health and Care – EHC – assessments and plans to the Special Educational Needs and Disability Tribunal.
Appealable decisions can include:
- Refusal to carry out an EHC needs assessment
- Refusal to reassess
- Refusal to issue an EHC plan
- Parts of an EHC plan
- School or institution named in the plan
- Decision to cease an EHC plan
School Disability Discrimination
Disability-discrimination claims against schools can also be heard by the SEND Tribunal in qualifying cases.
Family Court & Family Legal Support
Family court issues can include:
- Child arrangements
- Where a child lives
- Time with each parent
- Parental responsibility
- Domestic abuse protection
- Specific issue applications
- Prohibited steps applications
- Financial matters following separation
- Care proceedings
- Disability-related parenting arrangements
Mediation
For many private family applications you normally need to consider mediation before applying to court unless an exemption applies.
Eligible child-related cases may qualify for a Family Mediation Voucher contribution of up to £500.
Appealing a Family Court Decision
GOV.UK says that where the court has not set a different deadline, many family appeals must normally be made within 21 days.
Some decisions have shorter limits, including certain case-management decisions.
Appeals generally require legal grounds, not simply disagreement with the result.
Court Complaints: Know Which Route to Use
Court Administration
Examples:
- Lost correspondence
- Administrative delay
- Problems with court staff
- Incorrect administrative information
- Failure to process paperwork
Use the HMCTS complaints process.
Judicial Conduct
Examples can include allegations about a judge's:
- Personal behaviour
- Language
- Bullying
- Rudeness or aggression
- Other alleged misconduct
Use the judicial conduct complaints route.
Judicial Decision
If the complaint is really that:
- The order was wrong
- The judge made an error of law
- The procedure made the decision unsafe
The appropriate route may be an appeal or other court application.
Complaining About Judicial Conduct — England & Wales
The Judicial Conduct Investigations Office can investigate certain complaints about the personal conduct of judges and other qualifying judicial office holders.
Examples may include:
- Bullying
- Harassment
- Offensive language
- Loss of temper
- Aggressive behaviour
- Misuse of judicial status
Complaints about magistrates are normally made to the relevant Conduct Advisory Committee rather than directly to the JCIO.
Disability Support at Courts & Tribunals
HM Courts and Tribunals Service can provide reasonable adjustments for disabled court and tribunal users.
Examples given by HMCTS include:
- Accessible toilets
- Breaks during hearings
- British Sign Language interpreters
- Large-print forms
- Audio or Easy Read guidance
- Hearing enhancement equipment
- Ramps
- Other individual adjustments
Housing Complaints
If you are a social tenant, start with your landlord's complaints process.
The Housing Ombudsman can investigate qualifying complaints involving member landlords after the appropriate process.
Issues can include:
- Repairs
- Damp and mould
- Disabled adaptations
- Communication failures
- Complaint handling
- Anti-social behaviour handling
Disability Discrimination & Equality Rights
The Equality Act 2010 protects disabled people from unlawful discrimination in areas including:
- Employment
- Education
- Services
- Public functions
- Housing
- Transport in relevant circumstances
Organisations may also have a duty to make reasonable adjustments.
Northern Ireland has separate equality and disability-discrimination legislation.
Records, Subject Access Requests & Information Rights
Sometimes a complaint or appeal depends on finding out what information an organisation holds.
Your Personal Information
A Subject Access Request – SAR – can be used to ask an organisation for copies of personal information it holds about you, subject to legal exemptions.
Public Information
Freedom of Information legislation can be used to request recorded information from many public authorities.
Useful records might include:
- Case notes
- Decision records
- Emails
- Call notes
- Internal correspondence
- Assessment records
- Policies
- Recorded calculations
Legal Aid
Legal aid can help eligible people pay for legal advice, negotiation or representation.
Whether legal aid is available depends on:
- The type of legal problem
- The strength or merits of the case where applicable
- Income
- Savings and capital
- Other legal-aid eligibility rules
Scotland has its own legal-aid system administered through Scottish legal-aid arrangements.
Northern Ireland has its own legal-aid system administered by the Legal Services Agency Northern Ireland.
Legal Aid & Family Cases
Legal aid is not automatically available for every private family dispute.
In England and Wales it may be available in certain situations, including qualifying cases involving:
- Domestic abuse
- Risk of harm to a child
- Care proceedings
- Some child-protection cases
- Family mediation
- Some public-law or human-rights issues
What Does an Ombudsman Do?
An ombudsman is independent of the organisation being complained about.
Ombudsmen normally become involved after the organisation has had an opportunity to deal with the complaint itself.
England — NHS & UK Government
Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman.
Covers qualifying complaints about the NHS in England and UK government departments and public organisations.
England — Councils & Social Care
Local Government and Social Care Ombudsman.
England — Social Housing
Housing Ombudsman Service.
Wales
Public Services Ombudsman for Wales.
Scotland
Scottish Public Services Ombudsman.
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland Public Services Ombudsman.
What to Put in a Complaint
A complaint is easier to investigate when it is organised and specific.
Identify the Complaint
State clearly that you are making a formal complaint.
Give the Reference
Include the relevant case, NHS, council, CMS, benefit or complaint reference where appropriate.
Explain What Happened
Give dates, names and events in chronological order.
Explain What Went Wrong
Be specific about each error, failure or delay.
Explain the Impact
Explain the financial, practical, emotional, health or disability-related effect where relevant.
Attach Evidence
Refer to documents clearly rather than sending unexplained bundles.
Say What You Want
Explain what would put the matter right.
State Any Accessibility Needs
Request reasonable adjustments clearly where required.
Re: Formal Complaint – [reference]
I am making a formal complaint about [service / decision / incident].
The events are as follows:
1. [Date and event]
2. [Date and event]
3. [Date and event]
I believe the service failed because:
• [Failure 1]
• [Failure 2]
• [Failure 3]
This affected me by:
[Explain impact.]
I would like the organisation to:
[Explain the outcome requested.]
I also require the following reasonable adjustments:
[Explain adjustments.]
Evidence That May Help
Relevant evidence will depend on the case.
It may include:
Official Decisions
- Benefit letters
- CMS decisions
- Council decisions
- Court orders
- Tribunal notices
Medical & Care
- Medical letters
- Care plans
- Assessments
- Occupational therapy reports
- Hospital records
Financial
- Bank statements
- Payslips
- Tax records
- Payment records
- Receipts
Communication
- Emails
- Letters
- Online messages
- Screenshots
- Call notes
Education & Work
- School records
- EHC plan documents
- Workplace records
- Occupational health evidence
Witness Evidence
- Witness statements
- Contemporaneous notes
- Meeting notes
- Professional observations
Build a Clear Timeline
A chronology can make a complicated complaint much easier to understand.
4 January 2026 — Application submitted.
20 January 2026 — Organisation requested evidence.
22 January 2026 — Evidence sent by email.
14 February 2026 — Organisation said evidence had not been received.
15 February 2026 — Evidence resent with original delivery confirmation.
1 March 2026 — Decision made without referring to evidence.
A timeline helps separate:
- Facts
- Evidence
- Disputed issues
- Opinions
- Requested remedies
Important Deadlines
DWP Mandatory Reconsideration
Usually within one month of the decision.
CMS Mandatory Reconsideration
Normally within 30 days of the decision letter.
Benefit Tribunal Appeal
Usually within one month of the mandatory reconsideration notice.
NHS England Complaint
Normally within 12 months of the incident or becoming aware of it.
Judicial Conduct
Normally within 3 months.
School Disability Discrimination — England
Normally within 6 months.
Family Court Appeals — England & Wales
The deadline depends on the decision. Many appeals have a 21-day limit where the court has not ordered another deadline, while some matters have shorter limits.
What Outcome Can You Ask For?
Think about what would actually put the problem right.
You might ask for:
- A clear explanation
- An apology
- Correction of inaccurate records
- A reassessment
- A decision to be reconsidered through the correct process
- A service to be provided
- A reasonable adjustment
- A new staff-training measure
- A policy or process to be reviewed
- A calculation to be checked
- Reimbursement where a scheme legally allows it
- Financial remedy where an ombudsman or scheme permits one
Safeguarding & Immediate Risk
A normal complaints process may not be appropriate where somebody is at immediate risk of harm.
Depending on the situation, urgent concerns may also need to be raised with:
- Adult safeguarding
- Children's social care
- Police
- NHS safeguarding staff
- Care regulator
- Domestic abuse support services
- The relevant emergency or crisis service
Complaints About Professional Conduct
A service complaint is different from a complaint about whether a regulated professional is fit to practise.
Serious professional-conduct concerns may sometimes need to be raised with the appropriate regulator.
Social Workers — England
Social Work England regulates social workers in England.
Free & Low-Cost Legal and Advice Support
Law Centres
Some Law Centres provide free specialist legal advice to people who could not otherwise afford representation.
Disability Rights UK
Information on disability rights, benefits and independent living.
Family Law Support Organisations
Disability, Autism, Learning Disability & Carer Support
National Autistic Society
Autism information, rights information and support resources.
Debt & Financial Advice
A dispute with benefits, housing, maintenance or ill health can sometimes create financial problems.
Keep Your Own Complaint File
Create one folder for the issue and keep:
- Every decision letter
- Your complaint
- Complaint responses
- Evidence sent
- Proof of posting or delivery
- Emails
- Screenshots
- Call notes
- Names of staff spoken to
- Dates and times
- Reference numbers
- Copies of forms
- Court or tribunal documents
Date • time • who you spoke to • what was said • what was agreed • what should happen next.
If Nobody Responds to Your Complaint
Check It Was Received
Keep delivery receipts, automated acknowledgements and email records.
Ask for the Complaint Reference
Ask the organisation to confirm that the complaint is formally logged.
Ask for an Expected Response Date
Refer to the organisation's published complaints procedure.
Escalate Through the Procedure
If the deadline passes, ask for escalation to the next complaints stage.
Consider the Ombudsman
Once the organisation's complaints process has been exhausted, consider whether the relevant ombudsman can investigate.
Useful Contacts
Emergency & Crisis Support
Shout
Key Point
A mandatory reconsideration or statutory review challenges certain formal decisions.
A tribunal appeal asks an independent tribunal to decide whether a decision is wrong.
A court appeal challenges a judicial decision on recognised legal grounds.
A judicial conduct complaint concerns personal judicial behaviour and cannot overturn an order.
An ombudsman investigates qualifying unresolved complaints within its statutory remit.
Legal aid, advocacy, reasonable adjustments and independent advice may help people participate effectively in these processes.
Always protect any appeal or review deadline even if you are also making a complaint.
This guide provides general information about complaints, advocacy, tribunals, courts, ombudsmen and legal support. It is not individual legal advice.
Complaint procedures, legal-aid rules, appeal rights and time limits can differ depending on the organisation, decision and UK nation. Always read the decision letter and current official guidance for your individual case.
Where a court, tribunal or statutory appeal deadline is running, consider obtaining legal or specialist advice urgently.